The 'Isms' were a series of political, social, and economic movements that became prominent after the Industrial and French Revolutions. Although these ideas had already been present, they were not given specific terminology to be written about until the early nineteenth century.
Romanticism was an artistic and literary movement that had no political boundaries. The primary focus was on thought and feeling, rejecting the Englightenment belief that logic and reason applied to everything. Romantic authors and artists often centered their works on vague ideas, such as words or dreams.
Famed Romantic artists: Victor Hugo (Les Mis
érables), William Wordsworth (The Prelude),
Eugéne Delacroix
Conservativism was a mentality of avoiding change; this entailed keeping the church, aristocracy, and monarchy exactly or close to how they were.
A prominent conservative was Edmund Burke, who believed people should always stay to their roots, though he did support gradual changes.
Some conservatives were willing to reform to an extent. This was the case in Britain with Benjamin Disraeli, who drew up labor legislation, and neither either opposed nor advocated laissez-faire systems.
Liberalism was a belief in progression and modernization.
There were two main types of liberalism, both mostly supported by middle-class citizens or landowners:
Economic liberalism supported Adam Smith's lassez-faire free economy, with no meddling from the government. A common term for economic liberalism at the time was "Manchester School."
Political liberalism called for political and legal equality, including freedom of speech and the press, universal education, and a constitutional, representative government.
Liberals such as William E. Gladstone of Britain put forth reforms such as improving education, separating church and state, and legalizing labor unions, and these types of reforms hardly conflicted with the conservatives in Britain.
Radicalism was an extreme form of liberalism that demanded total upheaval of systems rather than gradual reform.
Most radicals were of the working class, and many were socialists who wished to remove the higher status of the aristocracy and the clergy. As such, their main goal in the government was universal male suffrage.
Republicanism had the same basic beliefs as Radicalism, but developed on Continental Europe.
Utilitarianism was an idea that believed the role of the state was to allow "the greatest good for the greatest number."
Socialism was an anti-capitalist economic idea, which involved sharing the wealth with all and eliminating the class system, with a small, powerful government controlling all means of production.
Communism was a form of socialism advocated by Karl Marx, who sought a revolution by the exploited workers to overthrow capitalism and create a peaceful society of people working as one unit.
Feminism was a demand for the rights of women that were often ignored, including the right to work alongside men, and especially the right to vote. A notable feminist was Mary Wollstonecraft, who wrote Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1792, was praised and extended upon during the nineteenth century.
While not a specific "ism," there was another scientific revolution during the nineteenth century. Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species suggested the radical new idea that species are not static, and instead evolve over time, with the early genetics research of Gregor Mendel supporting further arguments that traits are passed down from parent to child. This caused a surge of social Darwinism, the belief that life is an endless struggle for survival, and the ones who survive are the greatest. This view was held by Friedrich Nietzsche, who believed in a "Superman" that would one day evolve enough to be perfect in morality and truth. Psychology became a new science, with authors and doctors such as Sigmund Freud examining the human mind and how it functions.
Nationalism was an astoundingly influential idea of a sovereign state being based on the nationality of the people. This sense of pride in one's ethnicity as a community was a driving factor in the multiple political revolutions in the nineteenth century.
German nationalism was influenced by the philosopher Hegel, who wrote that the people must have a state to recognize them if they wish to have freedom or dignity.
Italian nationalism banded the country together against Austria, which had control of most of the penninsula.
In eastern Europe, where multitudes of ethnicities could be found, nationalism began to rise up and cause internal turmoil and revolutions, including one ending in the formation of the dual monarchy, Austria-Hungary.
- Romanticism was an artistic and literary movement that had no political boundaries. The primary focus was on thought and feeling, rejecting the Englightenment belief that logic and reason applied to everything. Romantic authors and artists often centered their works on vague ideas, such as words or dreams.
- Famed Romantic artists: Victor Hugo (Les Mis
érables), William Wordsworth (The Prelude),Eugéne Delacroix