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Communism was a form of socialism advocated by Karl Marx, who sought a revolution by the exploited workers to overthrow capitalism and create a peaceful society of people working as one unit.
Feminism was a demand for the rights of women that were often ignored, including the right to work alongside men, and especially the right to vote. A notable feminist was Mary Wollstonecraft, who wrote Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1792, was praised and extended upon during the nineteenth century.
While not a specific "ism," there was another scientific revolution during the nineteenth century. Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species suggested the radical new idea that species are not static, and instead evolve over time, with the early genetics research of Gregor Mendel supporting further arguments that traits are passed down from parent to child. This caused a surge of social Darwinism, the belief that life is an endless struggle for survival, and the ones who survive are the greatest. This view was held by Friedrich Nietzsche, who believed in a "Superman" that would one day evolve enough to be perfect in morality and truth. Psychology became a new science, with authors and doctors such as Sigmund Freud examining the human mind and how it functions.
Nationalism was an astoundingly influential idea of a sovereign state being based on the nationality of the people. This sense of pride in one's ethnicity as a community was a driving factor in the multiple political revolutions in the nineteenth century.
German nationalism was influenced by the philosopher Hegel, who wrote that the people must have a state to recognize them if they wish to have freedom or dignity.

érables), William Wordsworth (The Prelude),
Eugéne Delacroix
monarchy exactly or close to how they
A prominent conservative was Edmund Burke, who believed people should always stay to their roots, though he did support gradual changes.
Some conservatives were willing to reform to an extent. This was the case in Britain with Benjamin Disraeli, who drew up labor legislation, and neither either opposed nor advocated laissez-faire systems.
Liberalism was a belief in progression and modernization.
There were two main types of liberalism, both mostly supported by middle-class citizens or landowners:
Economic liberalism supported Adam Smith's lassez-faire free economy, with no meddling from the government. A common term for economic liberalism at the time was "Manchester School."
Political liberalism called for political and legal equality, including freedom of speech and the press, universal education, and a constitutional, representative government.
Liberals such as William E. Gladstone of Britain put forth reforms such as improving education, separating church and state, and legalizing labor unions, and these types of reforms hardly conflicted with the conservatives in Britain.
Radicalism was an extreme form of liberalism that demanded total upheaval of systems rather than gradual reform.
Most radicals were of the working class, and many were socialists who wished to remove the higher status of the aristocracy and the clergy. As such, their main goal in the government was universal male suffrage.

Africa was a perfect place for the Europeans to start settling; the countries were always fighting and were thus weak, Europe already had weakened them with the slave trade, and as it was mostly unknown, it was an ideal place to start finding new discoveries. After missionaries and explorers got the first glimpse, Belgium took the opportunity and began taking land along the Congo river. Not wanting to fall behind, other countries followed. Germany started to take eastern Africa, France followed Belgium into the Congo, and the Portuguese attempted to join Mosambique and Angola. In 1885, Bismarck called the Berlin Conference, which would decide how Africa would be claimed and tried to end the slave trade. After these rules were set, nearly the entire continent was taken over in the next fifteen years, except for the independent Ethiopia and Liberia. This completely set Africa back, as the inhabitants were suppressed by white men, and the continent became subject to Europeanization.
In Asia, there was a great scramble for all the abundant natural resources. France claimed Vietnam, the Dutch took Java and the Philippines, Germany took the Jiaozhou Bay, and even Japan, not even a European country, took their piece of the imperialistic pie in Korea. Britain gained much power, in Hong Kong, Burma, and especially India, which had already been a fruitful colony and was now almost completely controlled by them.
line splitting AfricaAfrica, with men such as Cecil Rhodes pressing on through from bottom to top, conflicted, and

The Rise of the Nation-State occurred when the unification of several European powers demanded a new kind of state. This state was based on nationalism, rather than political influence.
The Crimean War was a key point in historical nationalism, as it weakened both Russia and Austria, the latter of whom holding great influence and preventing much unification. Italy, which had been split by Austria and France, took the opportunity to unite as Mazzini, an Italian revolutionary, brought the people together. Count Cavour, the prime minister of Sardinia, sought to unify as well, and attempted to bring the French in to help. However, as Prussia felt threatened, the French troops were forced to remove themselves from Italy. Though now alone, Cavour persisted and eventually succeeded in a northern revolution, with a parliament set up in Turin. After communication and compromise with Garibaldi and his army of Red Shirts, Cavour launched yet another revolution in the south, almost completely uniting Italy, save Rome. Thus, Italy became a united nation-state under the monarch Victor Emmanuel I.
its superior army,army in the Franco-Prussian War, Prussia united Kaiser Wilhelm.
France, as usual, had trouble keeping a stable government for very long during this century, especially after the weakening of the country caused by Napoleon III's defeat in the Franco-Prussian war. When war broke out between the National Assembly and the French people, a Commune was set up to act as the new government, a more radical regime. However, fighting continued, with a violent attack by conservatives, ending in yet another change: the Third French Republic. This new republic lasted longer than any other new form of government beforehand, but this was not the expected result, and was thought to be temporary, just as the other revolutions were. This was especially apparent after the Dreyfus Affair, in which an innocent Jewish officer in the army was accused of treason. Word soon spread that the man was innocent, and writers such as Emile Zola influenced the decision, provoking anti-Semitic movements opposed by the republic's new policy of separation of church and state. The republic was shaky, but it held the people together for quite some time, up until the first world war.
Austria, meanwhile, had troubles of its own, and went the opposite way from these new unifications. After being defeated by both Italy and Prussia, the Habsburgs were quickly losing influence and power, not helped at all by the monarch, Franz Joseph, being isolated from the country's problems. Nationalism was brewing among the various ethnic groups in Austria, with the Hungarians being the biggest problem. After a series of attempts to unify, Austria finally gave in and offered an Ausgleich, a dual monarchy that split the country into two pieces, each with its own constitution and parliament, but both reported first to the Habsburgs. This did not liberate the Hungarians at all, and further infuriated the other ethnic groups who had no representation, especially the Slavs. This suppression of groups that already had nationalist ideas would cause even greater turbulence down the line.

Romanticism was an artistic and literary movement that had no political boundaries. The primary focus was on thought and feeling, rejecting the Englightenment belief that logic and reason applied to everything. Romantic authors and artists often centered their works on vague ideas, such as words or dreams.
Famed Romantic artists: Victor Hugo (Les Mis
(The Prelude),
Eugéne Delacroix
Conservativism was a mentality of avoiding change; this entailed keeping the church, aristocracy, and monarchy exactly how they were.
Utilitarianism was an idea that believed the role of the state was to allow "the greatest good for the greatest number."
Socialism was an anti-capitalist economic idea, which involved sharing the wealth with all and eliminating the class system, with a small, powerful government controlling all means of production.
Communism was a form of socialism advocated by Karl Marx, who sought a revolution by the exploited workers to overthrow capitalism and create a peaceful society of people working as one unit.
Feminism was a demand for the rights of women that were often ignored, including the right to work alongside men, and especially the right to vote. A notable feminist was Mary Wollstonecraft, who wrote Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1792, was praised and extended upon during the nineteenth century.
Nationalism was an astoundingly influential idea of a sovereign state being based on the nationality of the people. This sense of pride in one's ethnicity as a community was a driving factor in the multiple political revolutions in the nineteenth century.
German nationalism was influenced by the philosopher Hegel, who wrote that the people must have a state to recognize them if they wish to have freedom or dignity.

Factors that led to World War I are numerous, but the main concepts involved in all the specific events centered around nationalism, imperialism, and militarism.
Nationalist ideas were found strongly in the still subordinated ethnic groups of Austria, especially the Slavs, who wanted autonomy from the Habsburgs. This became especially pronounced in the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, an act by Gavrilo Princip and the terrorist group the Black Hand designed to stamp out anyone who might get in the way of the radicals. However, this assassination not only angered Austria, but its ally, Germany, and an ultimatum followed by war on Serbia was declared, with the Germans backing Austria. Serbia asked for help from the Russians, who in turn asked for help from the French, and this string of alliances sparked by the death of one man is often said to be the defining moment of the start of World War I.
Imperialistic forces clearly drove the countries to war, more and more with each passing year. The Fashoda and Moroccan Crises caused tension between countries as conflict arose in Africa, especially between Germany and France. Furthermore, as more African land was claimed by one country or another, there was competition for the little land remaining. This enmity between powers only became more pronounced as the other factors leading to the war came into play.
Militaristic causes of the war exist both in action and in the mindset of the people involved. Europe, especially Germany, had recently seen a string of successful wars that end in great amounts of profit, so it was natural to think that war could solve most anything. The inevitability of war at the sign of any sort of conflict was also ingrained into the masses' minds, making the people more eager to accept war as an option. The physical actions that came from this mainly consisted of the naval race between Britain and Germany. Britain had long ago established a competent navy, and Germany did not wish to be outclassed, so there was a demand for naval units to protect the new German colonies. With all the tension between countries as alliances were formed and armies built, it is difficult not to foresee a future war, and when it arrived, it certainly delivered.

Imperialism in the nineteenth century differed from the old colonial system greatly, and became an incredibly influential concept. Britain was the only colonial power left standing after Napoleon's defeat, and during most of the nineteenth century there was no incentive for other countries to expand; free trade kept them content, and there was no time or money to be put into imperialism, between the constant revolutions shaking Europe. However, from around 1870 onward, more of the less developed countries began to be taken over by these European powers.
Africa was a perfect place for the Europeans to start settling; the countries were always fighting and were thus weak, Europe already had weakened them with the slave trade, and as it was mostly unknown, it was an ideal place to start finding new discoveries. After missionaries and explorers got the first glimpse, Belgium took the opportunity and began taking land along the Congo river. Not wanting to fall behind, other countries followed. Germany started to take eastern Africa, France followed Belgium into the Congo, and the Portuguese attempted to join Mosambique and Angola. In 1885, Bismarck called the Berlin Conference, which would decide how Africa would be claimed and tried to end the slave trade. After these rules were set, nearly the entire continent was taken over in the next fifteen years, except for the independent Ethiopia and Liberia. This completely set Africa back, as the inhabitants were suppressed by white men, and the continent became subject to Europeanization.
In Asia, there was a great scramble for all the abundant natural resources. France claimed Vietnam, the Dutch took Java and the Philippines, Germany took the Jiaozhou Bay, and even Japan, not even a European country, took their piece of the imperialistic pie in Korea. Britain gained much power, in Hong Kong, Burma, and especially India, which had already been a fruitful colony and was now almost completely controlled by them.
Needless to say, all of these invasions did not please the natives, especially on Britain's part and in Africa. During the frenzy of claiming Africa, France's attempt to make a fully French line across Africa and Germany's to make a German line splitting Africa conflicted, and other such conflicts ended in the Fashoda and Moroccan Crises, which led to high tension between the countries. On Britain's end, there was little tolerance for the native Indians' culture, and this showed as the Sepoy Rebellion arose. The sepoys, native Indians hired in the British military, were informed that the cartridges for their weapons were slicked with animal fat, and as Hindus and Muslims are forbidden from coming into contact with beef or pork, respectively, they reacted violently, ending in a brutal suppression by Britain and full control of the Indian government. In China, as the trade of Indian-grown opium from Britain to China grew, so did the problem of opium addiction in China. The Chinese government decided to take control of the amount of imports, and Britain went to war, easily crushing China's navy. Though these conflicts often cropped up, by 1900, most of the world was taken over by European powers.

The Rise of the Nation-State occurred when the unification of several European powers demanded a new kind of state. This state was based on nationalism, rather than political influence.
The Crimean War was a key point in historical nationalism, as it weakened both Russia and Austria, the latter of whom holding great influence and preventing much unification. Italy, which had been split by Austria and France, took the opportunity to unite as Mazzini, an Italian revolutionary, brought the people together. Count Cavour, the prime minister of Sardinia, sought to unify as well, and attempted to bring the French in to help. However, as Prussia felt threatened, the French troops were forced to remove themselves from Italy. Though now alone, Cavour persisted and eventually succeeded in a northern revolution, with a parliament set up in Turin. After communication and compromise with Garibaldi and his army of Red Shirts, Cavour launched yet another revolution in the south, almost completely uniting Italy, save Rome. Thus, Italy became a united nation-state under the monarch Victor Emmanuel I.
In the mess of ethnicities brewing in central Europe, Germans in particular began to unite due to Napoleon's influential nationalist ideas. Some attempts were made at German unification, such as the Frankfurt Assembly, which tried to unite the people as a state, but had no political power. A Zollverein, or economic link, already existed between Prussia and Germany, making the way for unification, but not completely allowing it. As Prussia began to decline, however, Kaiser Wilhelm required a Chancellor to help: Otto von Bismarck. Bismarck worked outside the realms of Parliament to raise tax money for a larger army, completely ignoring the government speaking against him. With this new army, Bismarck joined with Austria in an attack on Denmark, and when the pieces of land were given to each country, Austria felt threatened, as Bismarck's new land nearly surrounded Austria's. In response, Austria declared war; just as Bismarck had planned, Prussia was the "victim" as seen by the populus. His modernized army quickly disposed of the Austrians in the appropriately-named Seven Weeks War. Now, in order to unite southern Germany, Bismarck needed to remove France from the equation. Using the same technique of goading the opposition into attacking first, Bismarck tampered with a document, the Ems Dispatch, that insulted the country, causing another breakout of war. After once again subduing the opposition with its superior army, Prussia united with Germany as the German Empire under Kaiser Wilhelm.
Austria, meanwhile, had troubles of its own, and went the opposite way from these new unifications. After being defeated by both Italy and Prussia, the Habsburgs were quickly losing influence and power, not helped at all by the monarch, Franz Joseph, being isolated from the country's problems. Nationalism was brewing among the various ethnic groups in Austria, with the Hungarians being the biggest problem. After a series of attempts to unify, Austria finally gave in and offered an Ausgleich, a dual monarchy that split the country into two pieces, each with its own constitution and parliament, but both reported first to the Habsburgs. This did not liberate the Hungarians at all, and further infuriated the other ethnic groups who had no representation, especially the Slavs. This suppression of groups that already had nationalist ideas would cause even greater turbulence down the line.

The "dike and flood" period of Europe was a time around 1815 to 1848, when the governments of several powerful states became unbalanced by the people's wills. It was a time of great suppression by the government to prevent rebellion, but instead, Europe became completely enveloped by the revolutionary spirit.
The Reactionary movement was an attempt by the Prince of Metternich, the de facto leader of Austria, to stop any sort of revolutionary action in Europe. It started with the "Concert of Europe," a movement led by Metternich that joined all heads of state as a force intended to stop revolution; however, this attempt failed, as each state was too jealous or wary of another to even consider combining its forces. Metternich's incentive in this was mainly to prevent German unification, which, if occurred, would create a state large and powerful enough to threaten Austria.
In 1820, the people of Naples revolted against the Bourbon leader, Ferdinand I. Ferdinand fled, but Metternich intervened, and, joining forces with Alexander I of Russia, the only state leader to come to his aid, crushed the revolt and put Ferdinand back on the throne, though he now paid such a debt to Metternich that he was little more than a puppet leader. After this revolt, the Protocol of Troppau, which was drawn up by Metternich during the revolt to make his anti-revolutionary policy clear, would dictate his future actions.
Metternich and Alexander worked together against three further rebellions after 1822, known as the Congress of Verona. In Greece, Alexander Ypsilanti attempted to free the Balkans from the Ottoman Empire, expecting Alexander to send troops to back up his army. However, as Alexander was working with Metternich to prevent rebellions such as these, the revolution went unaided and was quickly suppressed (though it was attempted again in 1826, after Alexander's death, and succeeded). When Spain was invaded by French troops, Metternich tried to prevent the Spaniards from revolting against them. Latin America's declaring independence from Spain greatly angered Metternich, and he attempted to call the British to arms, as they had a powerful navy. Instead, Britain allowed the independence to go on, as it created a new independent destination for trading. America, which also had a navy, also refused to become caught up in the affair, as the Monroe doctrine preventing interference with other countries was in effect. In short, Metternich's reactionary system never completely worked, as nearly every state besides Russia and Austria disagreed with Metternich's ideas.
Other revolutions occurred all throughout Europe. When the role of czar needed to be filled after Alexander's death, there were two candidates: Nicholas, a conservative, and Constantine, who likely would have carried out the role as an enlightened despot. Russian officers started the Decembrist Revolt, an attempt to forcefully bring Constantine to power. However, Constantine willingly gave up the crown to Nicholas, and the revolt was quickly crushed by the new czar.
Suppression was particularly notable in Britain, especially in the years when the Corn Laws were in effect, between 1815 and 1846. The Corn Laws, which put an enormous tariff on imported food to discourage buyers from supporting the Napoleon monopoly. In response, the people, especially those without representation in Parliament, rioted and protested against this unfair taxing. The government cracked down on the people's rights; habeas corpus was taken away, secret police were set up, and the Six Acts, which removed freedom of the press and of assembly, were drawn up in 1819. Peaceful attempts were made at changing the government policies, such as unarmed protest marches, but one of these marches was violently attacked and ended in several deaths, known as the Peterloo Massacre. Conspiracy and even planned assassinations began among the masses, until the laws were finally repealed in 1846.
In France, revolution was at hand once again, as the people were becoming tired of Charles X's conservative parliament. The middle class revolted, causing Charles to flee, and he was subsequently replaced by Louis Philippe. He abdicated as well not long after, as he was also seen as too conservative for the people. His grandson, the new leader of France, also sparked yet another revolution, in the form of the "June Days" of 1848. Louis Blanc of the new republic had the idea of a workshop system for the working class, and it was these exploited workers who rose up against the French military, ending in a failed massacre of ten thousand killed or wounded, and eleven thousand taken prisoner and deported.
1848 was an incredibly revolutionary year, with multiple revolutions in Ireland, Italy, and especially in central Europe, where the multiple ethnicities still had no independence. Between the French revolutions, British reformations, and turmoil in central Europe, it seemed that the entirety of Europe would be caught up in bloodshed for quite some time.

The 'Isms' were a series of political, social, and economic movements that became prominent after the Industrial and French Revolutions. Although these ideas had already been present, they were not given specific terminology to be written about until the early nineteenth century.
Romanticism was an artistic and literary movement that had no political boundaries. The primary focus was on thought and feeling, rejecting the Englightenment belief that logic and reason applied to everything. Romantic authors and artists often centered their works on vague ideas, such as words or dreams.
Famed Romantic artists: Victor Hugo (Les Mis
érables), William Wordsworth (The Prelude),
Eugéne Delacroix
Conservativism was a mentality of avoiding change; this entailed keeping the church, aristocracy, and monarchy exactly how they were.
A prominent conservative was Edmund Burke, who believed people should always stay to their roots, though he did support gradual changes.
Liberalism was a belief in progression and modernization.
There were two main types of liberalism, both mostly supported by middle-class citizens or landowners:
Economic liberalism supported Adam Smith's lassez-faire free economy, with no meddling from the government. A common term for economic liberalism at the time was "Manchester School."
Political liberalism called for political and legal equality, including freedom of speech and the press, universal education, and a constitutional, representative government.
Radicalism was an extreme form of liberalism that demanded total upheaval of systems rather than gradual reform.
Most radicals were of the working class, and many were socialists who wished to remove the higher status of the aristocracy and the clergy. As such, their main goal in the government was universal male suffrage.
Republicanism had the same basic beliefs as Radicalism, but developed on Continental Europe.
Utilitarianism was an idea that believed the role of the state was to allow "the greatest good for the greatest number."
Socialism was an anti-capitalist economic idea, which involved sharing the wealth with all and eliminating the class system, with a small, powerful government controlling all means of production.
Nationalism was an astoundingly influential idea of a sovereign state being based on the nationality of the people. This sense of pride in one's ethnicity as a community was a driving factor in the multiple political revolutions in the nineteenth century.
German nationalism was influenced by the philosopher Hegel, who wrote that the people must have a state to recognize them if they wish to have freedom or dignity.
Italian nationalism banded the country together against Austria, which had control of most of the penninsula.
In eastern Europe, where multitudes of ethnicities could be found, nationalism began to rise up and cause internal turmoil and revolutions, including one ending in the formation of the dual monarchy, Austria-Hungary.